Roman+Theatre

The theatre of ancient Rome was highly popular and a thriving form of entertainment of the Roman culture. The Roman historian Livy cites the first theatrical performance in Rome to 364 B.C.E. (Brockett 41). The essence of Roman theatre can be readily compared with American television programming, for it included acrobatics, trained animals, jugglers, athletic events, music and dance, dramatic skits, short farces and full length dramas (Brockett 41). Much of Roman drama was established from Horace’s //Ars Poetica//, which was a guide on how to write good plays. Comedy was well regarded by the Roman people, with Plautus and Terence’s popular comic plays. Eventually, Shakespeare was influenced by Roman theatre and today’s romantic comedies are based on the Roman’s comedic structure.

Theatre productions in Rome were highly influenced by the theories of Greek theatre, although the Romans improved and tweaked their ideas. The Etruscans also had a part in influencing Roman theatre, where the Romans adapted similar circus-like components. Rome inherited many features of its festivals from the Etruscans. In fact, Etruscan ruler, Tarquin, founded the //ludi Romani//, Rome’s most significant festival and the one at which Greek drama was first introduced (Brockett 41). The Roman theatre was less philosophical than the Greeks; the Romans incorporated more personal stories, like families and one’s individual consequences. Politics were removed from Roman plays. Also, the Romans did away with philosophical aspects that were characteristic of the Greeks. The Romans established more of a spectacle; holding events that included acrobatics, gladiators, jugglers, athletics, chariot races, boxing and animal fights. Drama prospered for a time under the republic, but declined into variety entertainment under the empire (Brockett 42-43).
 * __History/Early Influences__**

The festivals included religious portions and were performed precisely and without error (Brockett 41). Drama was presented at the festivals and contained various religions, but then later on, comedy became prominent in the festivals. The festivals honored various gods and then were led by a religious procession (Brockett 43). The theatres were all brief structures, and were temporary. These structures were put up just before the performances and then were taken down shortly. The stages were long and narrow, similar to the Greeks. The stage itself was enclosed by wings at each side. The theatres were simple wooden structures (“A Brief History of Roman Theatre 1). When comedy was being shown, the stage was set up in the street in front of houses that had three doors. The main locations for theatres were specifically around temples. During the empire, the festivals afforded circuses to the masses, so there were many performances (Trumbull 3). Performances were paid for by a wealthy citizen. These had free admission and were lengthy-which included a series of plays or events, and sometimes had prizes awarded to those citizens who put forth extra money (Trumbull 3). There were 175 festivals a year by 345 B.C. which 101 were devoted to theatre (Trumbull 2). By 55 B.C., Pompey had built the first stone theatre in Rome. The stone theatre seated tens of thousands of Romans (“A Brief History of Roman Theatre” 2).
 * __The Roman Theatre: Sites, Structure and Space__**
 * Theatre in the Republic**
 * Structure:**
 * Space:**

Roman theatre in the empire was laid out closely to that of the Greeks; many structures were built on level ground, though those today that were built at least partially on the slope of a hill were similar to the Greeks (Brockett 51). Theaters were built on hillsides because they provided extra support and they were much easier to build. The empire had a three house setting with more intricate architecture. There was a backstage area, seating arrangements, and an orchestra (later on, the orchestra was not involved) (“A Brief History of Roman Theatre” 1). There was also an addition to the curtain and roof over the performance area. Dressing rooms were in the side wings and trap doors were also common (Trumbull 6). There was also an awning that covered the audience to protect from the sun. The building was large and could pack at least 15,000 people. The theatre itself was divided into the stage and the seating section (“Roman Theatre” 2). The theatre was designed in the shape of a half circle and built on level ground with stadium style seating where the audience was raised (“Roman Theatre” 2).
 * Theatre in the Empire**
 * Structure:**
 * Space:**

The purpose of amphitheaters was to hold big spectacles like gladiator fights, chariot races and sea battles. The first permanent amphitheater was built in 46 B.C. The most famous amphitheater is the Colosseum in Rome, which was built in 80 A.D. The Colosseum held at least fifty thousand people (Trumbull 7). The Colosseum had many performers, mechanical lifts for animals, traps, and some three-dimensional scenery (Trumbull 7). Another popular Roman amphitheater was the Pompeii Spectacula, the oldest surviving Roman amphitheater in the world. The amphitheater held about twenty thousand people. In 59 A.D., a violent riot broke out between the fans of Pompeii and a rival town; this caused the Senate to ban any future games in Pompeii for ten years (“10 Famous” 1).
 * Amphitheater**



Roman actors and performers were called historines (Brockett 55). The actors were mostly men; for only in mimes did women appear on stage. The style of acting was mostly Greek traditions, with masks and doubling of roles (Brockett 56). In tragedies, the actor’s delivery was slow, distinguished, and dramatic. Their movement was more slow and dignified. In comedies, they performed in a more rapid and conversational way (Brocket 56). Their movements were enlarged and lively (Trumbull 8). They dressed in Roman or Greek costumes and music was played during celebration scenes.
 * __Actors__**

Mimes were performers that acted together in an improvisational comedy troupe. Mimes also included female actors. Their talents included the invention of quick dialogue and movement. Mimes were considered inferior than play actors. Mimes did not wear masks, so their facial expressions were crucially important (Brockett 55-56). Mimes were in high demand and their plots were mostly about domestic roles, sexual desirability, or something grotesque. Mime companies were very small, each with three to four members. Although in the second century, there were at least sixty performers, but mostly they were acrobats and various entertainers (Brockett 56).
 * Mimes**

Pantomimes were actors who used dance, music, hand gestures, facial expressions, elaborate sets, and costumes to demonstrate the play (Brockett 48). Pantomime was usually a one man act, and they were favored by the elite. The plots of the Pantomime were usually based off of mythology and history (Brockett 48). The solo dancer was accompanied by a chorus and an orchestra. The Pantomime performers emphasized their gestures to portray a series of characters and situations (Brockett 48).
 * Pantomimes**

Roman masks were an integral part of the actors’ performance. The mask would cover the actor’s entire head, including the hair, indicating the mask was quite large (Brockett 56). The design of the mask was plain and simple. The materials were fairly cheap and the materials used were linen or cork (Brockett 56). The use of masks also made the doubling of roles much easier and simplified the problem of casting characters of identical appearance (Brockett 56). There were masks that had one cheerful and one serious side, apparently to indicate a change of emotion without a change of mask (Brockett 56). Masks often easily expressed emotions to the audience, so they knew if the character was happy, sad, mad, etc. For example, the tragic mask carried mournful or upset expressions. Comic masks were usually smiling or sneering. Masks gave the actors the ability to play multiple parts and helped to express the status of the character. Romans used objects that were able to be easily moved around the stage. Such props used were weapons like swords and daggers, goblets and plates, stools, torches, wine, helmets, armor, crowns, skulls and bones, animal furs, banners, caskets, and flowers (“Roman Theatre” 3). Larger items included furniture, statues, and plants.
 * Roman Theatre Masks**
 * Roman Theatre Props**

Roman costumes were similar to the Greeks costumes. The design was simply standard and was a long robe, called a chiton (“Roman Theatre” 3). A himation was usually worn over the chiton. The himation was a heavier drape and was like a cloak (“Roman Theatre” 3). The chiton and himation were often colored to represent the character, sex, and rank (“Roman Theatre” 3). Stock characters had their own standardized costume, and that they remained the same from one play to the next. Since most of the characters were rustic, their costumes were probably of country dress (Brockett 57). The colors of what the characters wore made the audience aware of their status. For example, a purple costume identified a rich man, red costumes identified a poor man, and a yellow robe meant the character was a woman (“Roman Theatre” 3).
 * Roman Theatre Costumes**

Horace, a theoretician, devolved //Ars Poetica// (//The Art of Poetry//). //The Art of Poetry// was about his advice on characterization, language, and the style of drama (Brockett 34). Horace says the purpose of drama is to teach and please (Brockett 34). An example of //The Art of Poetry// is: “Good authors, take a brother bard’s advice: Ponder your subject o’er not once nor twice, And oft and oft consider, if the weight you hope to lift be or be not too great. Let but our theme be equal to our powers, Choice language, clear arrangement, both are ours” (Gerould 71).
 * __Comedy and Drama in Roman Theatre__**
 * Drama/Tragedy**

He also developed the concept of Roman Dramatic Theory, which mentions unities (time, place, and action) genre separation, and language use in tragedy and comedy (Trumbull 6). Horace said the plays should revolve around family life and should be in five acts. Tragedies were influenced by the Greeks, but the chorus was reduced and politics were uninvolved. Roman tragedies contained elaborate speeches and interest in the morality of the characters. There was violence and horror onstage, unlike in Greek theater (Trumbull 5). Characters had deep, inner monologues and often were controlled by a single passion. This passion becomes an obsession and subjects them to doom (Trumbull 5).

Comedy was the most popular genre with the Roman people. The modern romantic comedy plot derives from the Roman comic structure. The basic plot revolves around: The chorus was completely removed in the comedy plays. There were no act or scene divisions (Trumbull 5). Songs were added to comedies. Roman comedy dealt with everyday domestic affairs and actions took place in the street (Trumbull 5).
 * Comedy**
 * boy wants girl,
 * boy can’t have girl
 * someone more powerful wants her
 * complications ensue,
 * someone helps boy overcome obstacles
 * boy gets girl
 * the play ends happily

Titus Maccius Plautus was the most famous comic playwright of the Roman theatre. He was a slave at some point in his life, and then got into acting when he was a scene shifter sometime later. It was then he adopted the name “Plautus,” meaning “flat-footed.” He based his plays on Greek adaptations. His comedies were loosely about daily life and average people. His work was favored by the common people, or the lower class. Plautus added Roman allusions, Latin dialogue, varied poetic meters, and witty jokes (Trumbull 4). Plautus used dialogue with short lines; this technique was coined stichomythia. He was known for his slapstick humor in his plays. Plautus removed the chorus, which he places with the songs and speeches instead. Plautus’s most known works are //Pot of Gold//, //The Twin Menaechmi//, and //The Braggart Soldier//.
 * __Playwrights__**
 * Plautus**

Terence was also a comic playwright in the Roman theatre, but was lesser known. In total, he wrote six plays. Terence constructed more complex plots than Plautus and he combined stories from the Greeks original works (Trumbull 5). His specialty was character and double-plots, and contrasting with human behavior. He was less lively than Plautus, and used more dignified language and dialogue (Trumbull 5). His works included //The Brothers// and //Mother-in-Law//. Seneca was known for creating tragic pieces for Rome. He wrote nine plays, and five were adapted from Euripides (Brockett 46). Seneca’s characteristics in his pieces influenced greatly on Shakespeare’s tragedies (Brockett 46). Seneca used a lot of elaborate speeches, incorporated magic and death in his work, and created characters that had a single obsession that led to their downfall. Some of his work included //Oedipus//, //The Trojan Women//, and //Madea//.
 * Terence**
 * Seneca**

Works Cited "10 Famous Roman Amphitheaters." //Touropia//. N.p., 11 Mar. 2009. Web. 24 Nov. 2012. Brockett, Oscar G. "Hellenistic, Roman, and Byznatine Theatre." //History of the Theatre//. 10th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1968. 33-68. "A Brief History of Roman Theatre." //Angelfire.com//. Rhapsody, n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2012. Gerould, Daniel. "The Art of Poetry (1st B.C.)." //Theatre/Theory/Theatre//. New York: Applause, 2000. "Roman Theater." //Roman Theater//. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Nov. 2012. Trumball, Eric W. "Introduction to Theatre -- Roman Theatre." //Introduction to Theatre -- Roman Theatre//. N.p., 16 Nov. 2007. Web. 04 Nov. 2012.